phylum

PORIFERA ----- the "sponges"

(and other members of subkingdom Parazoa)

compiled by

R. A. Davis
Professor of Biology and Geology
College of Mount St. Joseph
Cincinnati, Ohio, 45233-1670

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface
Taxonomic Framework
Generic Index
Background Comments
Glossary / Word-list
Key to citations
Bibliography
Ankyliography
Material available for study
Advice for completing your study of this group of organisms
About this web-page -- Caveat lector !

PREFACE

The following are comments and other information relating to the members of phylum Porifera and other members of the subkingdom Parazoa. This compilation definitely is neither comprehensive or exhaustive. Thus, in addition to the following, you should study as much other material related to the subjects mentioned as you "can get your hands on". To this end, toward the bottom of this WEB-page are listed some bibliographic references that might prove useful. There also is an ankyliography (a list of links) to web-sites that may contain some useful information.

If you have some suggestions as to how this WEB-page might be improved, please, contact me.

R. A. Davis
Professor of Biology and Geology
College of Mount St. Joseph
Cincinnati, Ohio, 45233-1670

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TAXONOMIC FRAMEWORK

The following is based on the classificatory schemes presented in various publications, including Hickman, Roberts, and Larson (1997, p. 250) and part E of the "Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology". However, it may not include all taxa listed therein, because we may not have specimens of all of them for you to study. The various schemes of classification do not always correspond with one another, nor does that presented below correspond exactly (and sometimes not even inexactly) with other classificatory schemes. Moreover, there is no doubt that the scheme presented below will be subject to considerable change in future years.

(Please, recall that botanists tend to use the taxonomic level "Division" for what zoölogists call "Phylum".)

kingdom Animalia (= Metazoa)

subkingdom Parazoa

phylum Porifera

class Calcarea (= Calcispongea; = Calcispongiae)

examples: Grantia, Leucosolenia, Rhabdodermella, "Scypha", "Sycon"

(Note that the names Grantia, Scypha, and Sycon all have been used for animals of the same genus.)

class Hexactinellida (= Hyalospongea; = Hyalospongiae)

examples: Euplectella, Hyalonema

class Demospongiae (= Demospongea)

examples: Apusina, Cliona, Euspongia, Halichondria, Haliclona, Heteromyenia, Microcliona, Spinosella, Spongia, Spongilla

class Sclerospongea (= Sclerospongiae)

order Stromatoporoidea

plus the present-day sclerosponges (order not here indicated)

phylum Archaeocyatha

The phylum Archaeocyatha comprises a group of apparently sponge-like organisms that have been extinct since the Cambrian Period (which ended more than 500 million years ago). An individual archaeocyathan was a cup-, bowl-, or vase-shaped organism with a perforate body-wall.

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SOME GENERA

Listed below are some representative genera of some of the higher taxa.

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BACKGROUND COMMENTS

One of the striking characteristics of a sponge is the overall construction of the organism. Amongst the members of the phylum Porifera, there are three "body-plans" generally recognized: asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid. These are defined on the basis of the number, location, and arrangement the choanocyte-lined chambers within the individual animal. Note that there is no exact correspondence between "body-plan" and any of the classes of phylum Porifera. In other words, major taxa of the phylum are not recognized on the basis of "body-plan".

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GLOSSARY / WORD-LIST

In order to understand this group of organisms, how they function, how they evolved, and so on, you will need to know a number of words, their definitions, and how and when to use the words. Thus, you should put together a list of such words, definitions, and notes. Here are some items to start you in compiling your own list.

Note that many terms in the material in this WEB-page have not been listed separately in this glossary. This does not mean that it would be a wise idea for you to ignore the terms in the material above.

(If a word you seek is not in the following, you might find it in the general glossary.)

AMPHIBLASTULA LARVA     [noun]

APOPYLE     [noun]

ARCHAEOCYTE     [noun]

ASCON, ASCONOID     [adj.]

CHOANOCYTE     [noun]

[etymology: Greek "choane", "funnel" + "kytos", "hollow vessel".]

COLLENCYTE     [noun]

a kind of cell found embedded in the mesohyl of sponges that is similar to cells found in connective tissue of eumetazoans; the term was proposed in 1887 by W. J. Sollas. (Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, on-line, 21 September 2009).

[See figure on p. 116 of Hickman, et al. (2008).]

GEMMULE

[etymology: diminutive of Latin "gemma", "bud".]

INCURRENT CANAL     [noun]

LEUCON, LEUCONOID     [adj.]

MESOHYL     [noun]

MICROPYLE     [noun]

MONAXON     [noun]

[cf.: POLYAXON, TRIRADIATE SPICULE.].

OSCULUM     [noun]

OSTIA, DERMAL OSTIA     [noun, pl.]

PARENCHYMULA LARVA     [noun]

PINACOCYTE     [noun]

[etymology: Greek "pinax", "tablet" + "kytos", "hollow vessel".]

POLYAXON     [noun]

[cf.: MONAXON, TRIRADIATE SPICULE.].

PROSOPYLE     [noun]

RADIAL CANAL     [noun]

SPICULE     [noun]

[see also: MONAXON, POLYAXON, TRIRADIATE SPICULE.].

SPONGIN     [noun]

SPONGOCOEL     [noun]

SYCON, SYCONOID     [adj.]

[etymology: from the genus Sycon.]

TRIRADIATE SPICULE     [noun]

[cf.: MONAXON, POLYAXON.].

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KEY TO CITATIONS BELOW

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abramoff, Peter, and Robert G. Thomson, 1994, Laboratory Outlines in Biology VI: W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, ix + 526 p., specifically p. 291-293.

Babcock, Loren E., 1996, Phylum Porifera, Stromatoporoids: IN Fossils of Ohio (Feldmann, Rodney M., and Merrianne Hackathorn, eds.): Ohio Division of Geological Survey, Bulletin 70, p. 64-65.

Davis, R. A., 1992, Cincinnati fossils. An elementary guide to the Ordovician rocks and fossils in the Cincinnati, Ohio, region: Cincinnati Museum of Natural History, Cincinnati, Ohio, 61 p.

Feldmann, Rodney M., and Merrianne Hackathorne, editors, 1996, Fossils of Ohio: Ohio Division of Geological Survey, Bulletin 70, xx + 577 p.

Finks, R. M., R. E. H. Reid, and J. K. Rigby, 2003, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part E. Porifera. Revised. Volume 2: Introduction to the Porifera: Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, xxvii + 349 p.

Finks, R. M., R. E. H. Reid, and J. K. Rigby, 2004, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part E. Porifera. Revised. Volume 3: Porifera (Demospongea, Hexactinellida, Heteractinida, Calcarea): Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, xxxi + 872 p.

Hickman, Cleveland P., jr., Lee B. Kats, and Susan L. Keen, 2008, Laboratory Studies in Integrated Principles of Zoology [fourteenth edition]: McGraw-Hill, Boston, xii + 448 p. [spiral-bound; ISBN-13 9780072970050]. ----- V.

[specifically: Exercise 7: "The Sponges. Phylum Porifera" ----- p. 113-120.]

Hickman, Cleveland P., jr., Larry S. Roberts, and Allan Larson, 1997, Integrated Principles of Zoology (tenth edition): Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa, xix + 901 p., specifically, chapter 13 "The Mesozoa and Parazoa", p. 239-251.

Laubenfels, M. W. de, 1955, Porifera: p. E21-E122 IN Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part E. Archaeocyatha and Porifera (Raymond C. Moore, ed.): Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press, New York (now Boulder, Colorado), and Lawrence, Kansas, p. i-xviii + E1-E122.

Lytle, Charles F., 1996, General Zoology. Laboratory Guide (twelfth edition): Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa. xvi + 368 p., especially Chapter 6. Porifera. p. 95-104.

Lytle, Charles F., and John R. Meyer, 2005, General Zoology Laboratory Guide (fourteenth edition): McGraw-Hill, Boston, xxiii + 372 p. (ISBN 0-07-234900-X; spiral-bound), specifically, Chapter 6. "Porifera", p. 91-100.

Margulis, Lynn, and Karlene V. Schwartz, 1998, Five Kingdoms. An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth: W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, xx + 520 p. ----- p. 214-217.

Moore, Raymond C., ed., 1955, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part E. Archaeocyatha and Porifera: Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press, New York (now Boulder, Colorado), and Lawrence, Kansas, i-xviii + E1-E122.

Okulitch, Vladimir J., 1955, Archaeocyatha: p. E1-E20 (+ index) IN Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part E. Archaeocyatha and Porifera (Raymond C. Moore, ed.): Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press, New York (now Boulder, Colorado), and Lawrence, Kansas, p. i-xviii + E1-E122.

Purves, William K., David Sadava, Gordon H. Orians, and H. Craig Heller, 2001, Life. The science of biology (sixth edition): Sinauer Associates, Inc./W. H. Freeman and Company., specifically, Ch. 31 "Animal Origins and Lophotrochozoans".

Raven, Peter H., George B. Johnson, Susan R. Singer, and Jonathan B. Losos, 2002, Biology (sixth edition): McGraw-Hill, Boston, xxix + 1238 p., plus appendices, and so on. (ISBN 0-07-303120-8; hardbound), specifically p. 884-885.

Raven, Peter H., George B. Johnson, Jonathan B. Losos, and Susan R. Singer, "2005" (actually in print in 2004!), Biology (seventh edition): McGraw-Hill, Boston, xxiii + 1250 p., plus appendices, and so on. (ISBN 0-07-291845-4; hardbound).

Vodopich, Darrell S., and Randy Moore, 1999, Biology Laboratory Manual (fifth edition): WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston. xi + 546 p., specifically, p. 255-358.

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ANKYLIOGRAPHY

(Editorial note: The word "ankyliography" is analogous to the word "bibliography", but is derived from the Greek word "ankylion", which denotes a link in a chain [as opposed to "biblion", "book"].)

The University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley, California.

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MATERIAL AVAILABLE FOR STUDY

Here is a list of preserved material of phyla Porifera and Archaeocyatha (including microscope slides) that is available in the Department of Biology.

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ADVICE FOR YOUR STUDY OF THIS GROUP OF ORGANISMS

The particular exercise we will be using in class is: Exercise 7: "The Sponges. Phylum Porifera" ----- p. 113-120 IN Hickman, Cleveland P., jr., Lee B. Kats, and Susan L. Keen (2008).

Given the limited time we have, please, follow the oral instructions from the instructor as to which portions of the exercise definitely need to be done.

Aside from that, first study the items specifically mentioned in the exercise. Then, if there is time remaining, study the other specimens available in the room.

One of the best ways to stimulate your observational skills is by making drawings of the specimens you examine. Moreover, drawings definitely help jog the memory, once the specimens themselves no longer are available. Hence, you should make drawings of all the specimens you study. These do not need to be equal to the renderings of a professional artist. However, each of your drawings should be well labelled, both as to what is shown and as to the parts and features thereof. There should be a scale on each drawing, of course. Accompanying each drawing should be notes of your observations of colours, changes over the time you observed the specimen, behaviour of the animal (if it was alive), and so on. Again, the goal is to stimulate your observational skills and your memory.

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ABOUT THIS WEB-PAGE -- Caveat lector !

This web-page was constructed using MS-FrontPage and its version of html. The results have been previewed by way of MS Internet Explorer. Unfortunately, things that look fine when viewed with Internet Explorer sometimes look rather peculiar when viewed with Netscape. For example, there can be unexpected and unpredictable changes in the size, shape, style of type, or some combination of these. Moreover, sometimes different versions of Internet Explorer do not present the same web‑page in the same way; for example, hyphens in one version can mutate into empty rectangles in another. Alas!