GLOSSARY OF TERMS
USEFUL IN BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY
compiled by
R. A. Davis
Professor of Biology and Geology
College of Mount St. Joseph
Cincinnati, Ohio, 45233-1670
Preface
Pronunciation
Glossary
Key to Symbols and Abbreviations Used in Citations
Bibliography
About this web-page -- Caveat lector !
In order to understand a given subject and to converse and write intelligently about that subject, you will need to know a number of words, their definitions, and how and when to use the words. Thus, you should put together a list of such words, definitions, and notes. Here are some items to start you in compiling your own list.
Note that there are lists of words in the WEB-pages I have constructed that are devoted to specific taxa. Please, follow the indicated links to these.
The following is, in no way, a comprehensive or exhaustive glossary. It is, simply, a list of words, and so on, that have come up in my work on various courses and in other activities. From time to time, as the occasion and availability of time allow, I will made additions and other emendations.
If you have some suggestions as to how this WEB-page might be improved, please, contact me.
R. A. Davis
Professor of Biology and Geology
College of Mount St. Joseph
Cincinnati, Ohio, 45233-1670
How to pronounce scientific terms can be a real bugaboo. In the following glossary, there is included advice on how to pronounce terms. As you know, lexicographers have developed a scheme of symbols to indicate how they feel particular letters, syllables, and words should be pronounced. I have tried to keep the use of such symbols to a minimum. I hope that, in so doing, I still have managed to help you pronounce words in a way useful to you.
Unfortunately, not all scientific terms are included in dictionaries, not even in the foremost dictionary of the English language, "The Oxford English Dictionary" (Simpson and Weiner, 1989). The names of genera and species are very rarely included, except in some specialized works. One that I have found helpful is "The Biologist's Handbook of Pronunciations" (Jaeger, 1960), and there other similar works. Alas! Space here does not permit a listing of all such works, but the friendly professional librarians at the library of your choice can be of tremendous help here.
| KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS | ||
| cf. | = | compare to the following |
| [from the Latin "conferre" -- "to compare", "to bring together"] | ||
| q.v. | = | see the entry for the previous word |
| [from the Latin "quod vide", "which see"] | ||
| [ ] | = | note / annotation |
| ( ) | = | source of information |
| ► | = | term is applicable to organisms of the particular taxon or taxa |
alphabetical index ----- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
ADDUCTOR, ADDUCTOR MUSCLE [noun]
One of the muscles of a bivalved organism that serve to close the shell, that is, to draw the two valves toward one another. [cf.: DIDUCTOR]. In an articulate brachiopod, the adductors act in opposition to the diductors, whereas, in a pelecypod, adductors act in opposition to the ligament. ----- [► Brachiopoda, Pelecypoda].
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS [noun]
----- [► Cnidaria; Plantae].
ARAGONITE [noun]
One of three minerals that have the chemical composition CaCO3, the others being calcite [q.v.] and vaterite. The shells of many molluscs consist of aragonite. Aragonite is less stable than calcite, and, in some geological environments, aragonite recrystallizes into calcite. Because of this, fossils of animals that originally had aragonitic shells commonly are less well preserved than are those of animals that originally had calcitic shells. ----- [► Mollusca].
AUTECOLOGY [noun]
The ecology of individual organisms or of members of one species; the relationship of those creatures to the chemical and physical aspects of their environment and to other members of the given species.
[etymology: "auto-" = "self"; + "ecology".]
alphabetical index ----- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
BENTHIC, BENTHONIC [adj.]
living in, on, or associated with the bottom of a body of water. [cf.: NEKTONIC, PLANKTONIC].
BINARY FISSION [noun]
With respect to reproduction of organisms: [cf.: BUDDING].
BIOME [noun]
"One of the major terrestrial ecosystems, characterized by climatic and soil conditions; the largest ecological unit." (Losos, Mason, and Singer, 2008, p. G-3).
"Biomes are defined by their characteristic vegetational structures and associated climatic conditions, not by the particular species of plants present. Two regions assigned to a single biome may differ therefore in the species that dominate the landscape. Tropical rain forests around the world, for example, are all composed of tall, lushly vegetated trees – but the particular tree species that dominate a South American tropical rain forest are different from those in an Indonesian one. The similarity between such forests is a product of convergent evolution …." (Losos, Mason, and Singer, 2008, p. 1217).
Principal biomes: 1. tropical rain‑forest 2. savanna 3. desert 4. temperate grassland 5. temperate deciduous forest 6. temperate evergreen forest 7. taiga 8. tundra (Losos, Mason, and Singer, 2008, p. 1216)
Additional biomes recognized by some workers (Others lump these into the major biomes listed above.): a. polar ice b. mountain zone c. chaparral d. warm moist evergreen forest e. tropical monsoon forest f. semidesert (Losos, Mason, and Singer, 2008, p. 1217)
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY [noun]
Strictly speaking, the study of the distribution of fossils with respect to the layering in sedimentary rocks. By extension, the word also is used for the the actual distribution of the fossils with respect to the layering in sedimentary rocks.
BIOTA [noun]
All the individuals of all the species present in a given time and place. Ideally, the biota present in a given stratum would be equivalent to the community that existed at the time and place that the stratum was deposited; however, taphonomy happens. [cf.: COMMUNITY, FAUNA, FLORA].
BOTRYOIDAL [adj.]
"Having the form of a bunch of grapes. Said of mineral deposits, e.g. hematite, having a surface of spherical shapes...." (Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 80).
BUDDING [noun]
With respect to reproduction of organisms: [cf.: BINARY FISSION, FISSION].
alphabetical index ----- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
CHLOROCRUORIN [noun]
One of the respiratory pigments. Chlorocruorin is an iron porphyrin, like hemoglobin, but is green in colour. [cf.: HEMOCYANIN, HEMERYTHRIN, HEMOGLOBIN].
Examples: Chlorocruorin is characteristic of some annelids, for example, serpulids and sabellids. (Barnes, 1987, p. 295)
CHLOROPLAST [noun]
CLIMAX, CLIMAX COMMUNITY [noun]
"A more or less stable biotic community which is in equilibrium with existing environmental conditions and which represents the terminal stage of an ecological succession." (Lincoln and Boxhall, 1987, p. 86).
COMMUNITY [noun]
All the individuals of all the species living in a given time and place. In Nature, a community consists of a number of populations. [see also: BIOTA].
CONJUGATION [noun]
CONTINENTAL DIVIDE [noun]
"A drainage divide that separates streams flowing toward opposite sides of a continent, often into different oceans…." (Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 143).
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION [noun]
COPROPHAGOUS [adj.]
Feeding upon dung.
[first usage: Kirby, William, and W. Spence, 1826, An Introduction to Entomology, p. xliv (OED, 1971, p. 976)]
alphabetical index ----- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
DETRITUS [noun]
Loose rock and mineral matter that is removed or worn off by mechanical means, for example, by disintegration or abrasion; especially fragmental material derived from older rocks and moved from its place of origin (Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 178).
DIDUCTOR, DIDUCTOR MUSCLE [noun]
One of the muscles of a bivalved organism that serve to open the shell. [cf.: ADDUCTOR]. In an articluate brachiopod, the diductors act in opposition to the adductors, whereas, in a pelecypod, the opening of the shell is performed by the ligament, by means of elasticity.
DIMORPHISM [noun]
The existence in a taxon of two phenotypic forms; the term is used especially in reference to sexual dimorphism. [cf., POLYMORPHISM].
DIVERSITY [noun]
The number of different taxa at a given taxonomic level in the Linnaean Hierarchy. For example, the number of species of a given genus (or other higher taxon) in a given time-interval, in a given place, or in some combination of time and place. Thus, once could speak of the diversity of the brachiopods (the number of species of phylum Brachiopoda) in the Cincinnatian Epoch, or in the rocks of the Cincinnatian Series in the Cincinnati area. "Generic diversity" would refer to the number of genera in some higher taxon, and so on.
The word "diversity" commonly is used as a sub-set of the above, as
referring to the number of species in a given community. Thus, in this sense, it is equivalent to "species richness".
(Lincoln and Boxshall, 1987, p. 119).
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Z ECOLOGIC SUCCESSION [noun] "The gradual process of progressive community change and replacement,
leading towards a stable climax." (Lincoln and Boxshall, 1987, p. 126). ECOLOGY [noun] 1. "The study of the interrelationships between living organisms and their
environment." (Lincoln and Boxshall, 1987, p. 126); "the study of the environment" (Meyer and Davis, 2009, p. 284). [etymology: Greek, "oikos", meaning "house" or "home" +
"logos", meaning "word", "reason", "discourse", "story", and, by extension, "study of".] 2. "the totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their
environment." (anonymous, 1974, p. 360); "the environmental needs of organisms of a given taxon or group of taxa"
(Meyer and Davis, 2009, p. 284). 3. Environmental conditions favorable for organisms and for
the preservation or restoration of such conditions ----- for example, as used in the phrase "I'm for ecology.". [cf.: AUTECOLOGY, SYNECOLOGY; see also:
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS] ECOSYSTEM [noun] All the organisms in a given time and place, along with the
chemical and physical aspects of the environment in which they live in that time and place. (Meyer and Davis, 2009, p. 284).
[cf.: COMMUNITY, POPULATION]. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS [noun] [When one speaks of environmental conditions, one generally thinks within
the ranges in which life can exist. However, the lithology of an igneous rock, for example, depends on an environment of
much higher temperatures ----- on "non-ecologic" or "extra-ecologic" environmental conditions.] [see: ECOLOGY]. EUKARYOTIC [adj.] EUTELY [noun] The phenomenon in which the body
has a constant number of cells or nuclei within individuals of a given species. Eutely occurs
within phyla Acanthocephala, Nematoda, and Rotifera; in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans,
for example, every mature individual has 959 cells. alphabetical index -----
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Z FAUNA [noun] All the individuals of all the species of animals present in a given time
and place. [cf.: BIOTA, COMMUNITY, FLORA]. FLORA [noun] A. All the individuals of all the species of plants present in a given time
and place. [cf.: BIOTA, COMMUNITY, FAUNA]. B. All the individuals of all the species of bacteria present in a given time
and place, e.g., within one's gut. FISSION [noun] With respect to reproduction of organisms: alphabetical index -----
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Z GEOCHRONOLOGY [noun] The study of geologic time and how it is measured. GEOMORPHOLOGY [noun] The study of the
configurations of the surface of the Earth; the study of landforms, of their
relationship to underlying structures, and of the history of geologic changes as
recorded by these surface features. [cf.: PHYSIOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY] [See Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 272]. alphabetical index -----
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Z HABITAT [noun] A. "Place with particular kind of environment inhabited by organism(s),
e.g. the sea shore." (Abercrombie, M., C. J. Hickman, and M. L. Johnson, 1962, p. 107). B. "The local environment occupied by an organism."
(Lincoln & Boxshall, 1987, p. 171). [etymology: Latin "habitat", "it inhabits", from "habito, habitare",
"to inhabit; to dwell".] HEMERYTHRIN [noun] One of the respiratory pigments. Hemerythrin is a protein similar to
hemocyanin, but, in which a molecule of oxygen is carried between two iron
atoms. [cf.: CHLOROCRUORIN, HEMOCYANIN, HEMOGLOBIN]. Examples: The annelid Magelona has a blood vascular system with
corpuscles that contain hemerythrin. (Barnes, 1987, p. 295). HEMOCYANIN [noun] One of the respiratory pigments. Hemocyanin is a protein in which a
molecule of Oxygen is carried between two copper atoms. Oxyhemocyanin is a pale blue, whereas deoxyhemocyanin is colourless.
[cf.: chlorocruorin, hemerythrin, hemoglobin]. Examples: Prosobranch and some pulmonate gastropods possess hemocyanin
dissolved in the blood plasma. Other pulmonates possess hemoglobin dissolved in the blood plasma. Some species of opisthobranch
Aplysia have hemocyanin, whereas others do not. (Barnes, 1987, p. 382) Hemocyanin has been found in two species of protobranch pelecypods,
and it may be that hemocyanin is the "primitive molluscan respiratory pigment but has been lost in most pelecypods".
(Barnes, 1987, p. 433, citing Morse, et al., 1986). HEMOGLOBIN [noun] One of the respiratory pigments. Hemoglobin is an iron porphyrin.
[cf.: chlorcruorin, hemerythrin, hemocyanin]. Examples: Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory pigment in the
polychaetes, especially the larger ones. (Barnes, 1987, p. 295) Most pelecypods lack any respiratory pigments, but hemoglobin,
either extracellular or intracellular, occurs in some 21 species, including of Arca. (Barnes, 1987, p. 433) HOLOZOIC [adj.] alphabetical index -----
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Z -ITE, -ITES [suffix] signifying "mineral", "rock", "rock-like", "petrified", or "fossilized"
(Brown, 1956, p. 756). [etymology: Latin "-ite", "-ites", and Greek "-ites", a contraction of
"-lite", derived from "lithos", Greek for "stone" or "rock". (Brown, 1956, p. 756). ITEROPAROUS [adj.] Used to describe organisms that
"produce offspring several times over many seasons";
examples of iteroparous organisms include human beings. [See: Mason, et al., 2011, p. 1173.] [cf.: SEMELPAROUS]. alphabetical index -----
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Z LICHEN [noun] An organism that consists of intergrown fungi and algae that exist in a
mutualistic, symbiotic relationship. alphabetical index -----
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Z MITOCHONDRION [noun; plural, MITOCHONDRIA] MUTUALISM [noun] alphabetical index -----
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Z NEKTONIC [adj] swimming within a body of
water. [cf.: benthic, planktonic]. alphabetical index -----
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Z ONTOGENY [noun] Everything that happens to an individual organism in the course of the growth
and development of that individual organism during its entire life; sometimes called "development". [etymology: "on, ontos" = Greek for "being, that which has existence";
+ "-genēs", Greek for "born", derived from the root of "gignesthai", "to be born, to become".] OÖGAMY [noun] the state in which the female gamete is decidedly larger than is the
male gamete; the female gamete, the egg, is immobile, whereas the male gamete, the sperm, is mobile. ORGANELLE [noun] alphabetical index -----
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Z PALEONTOLOGY [noun] The study of ancient life, or the study of fossils.
[The word also is spelt "palaeontology", especially in older publications and in countries in which people use British English.]
Some people use the word "paleobiology" as a synonym. Other workers use this latter word to denote
the study of what we now see as fossils as they were in life. [etymology: Greek "palaios", meaning "ancient", + "on, ontos", meaning
"being, that which has existence", + "logos", meaning "word, reason, discourse, or story" and, by extension,
"study of".] PANTARBE [noun] "An imaginary stone, the virtues of which were similar to those of
the magnet, but exerted upon gold as those of the lodestone upon iron."
(Kacirk, 2006, 20 November 2007, quoting Chambers, Ephraim, 1753, Cyclopaedia of Arts and Sciences Supplement}. PARTHENOGENESIS [noun] "The development of an individual from a female gamete without fertilization
by a male gamete." (Lincoln & Boxshall, 1987, p. 280) [etymology: Greek "parthenos", meaning "virgin", + "genesis",
meaning "beginning", "birth", or "origin".] PHLOGISTON [noun] "An imaginary substance thought to be a constituent of all inflammable bodies."
(Kacirk, 2006, 10 December 2007, quoting Grimshaw, William, 1854, Ladies' Lexicon and Parlour Companion}. "The hypothetical principle of fire, regarded as a material substance."
[from Greek "phlogistos", "burnt", "inflammable"; from Greek "phlox", "flame"] {(anonymous), 1959, p. 633}. PHOTOSYNTHETIC [adj.] PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCE [adj.] "a region of which all parts are similar in geologic structure and climate
and which has consequently had a unified geomorphic history; a region whose pattern of relief features or landforms differs
significantly from that of adjacent regions" (Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 502). PHYSIOGRAPHY [noun] Introduced by Huxley in
1869 for the description of natural phenomena in general, but redefined by
Powell in 1895: "the description of the surface features of the Earth, as bodies
of air, water, and land"; thus, it embraced meteorology, oceanography, and
geology, and is, essentially a synonym of "physical geography"; especially in
the U.S., sometimes restricted to be essentially a synonym for "geomorphology",
although "physiography" commonly is viewed as being the descriptive study of
landforms, whereas "geomorphology" is the interpretive study of landforms. [cf., GEOMORPHOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY]
[etymology: Greek "physis", meaning "nature", and "graphein", "to write".] [See Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 502.]. PINCH-AND-SWELL [noun] A condition in which a layer of rock or a vein is thinned at frequent intervals,
leaving expanded parts between. (see: Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 504). PITCH [noun] degree of slope [= rake]. (anonymous, 1963, p. 645).
[cf.: ROLL, YAW]. PLANKTONIC [adj.] suspended within or
floating upon a body of water, with transportation exclusively or primarily by
currents and other movements of the water itself. [cf.: BENTHIC, NEKTONIC]. PLANULA [noun] PNEUMOSTOME [noun] The opening between
the "lung" and the atmosphere in certain terrestrial gastropods. POPULATION [noun] All the individuals of a single species present in a given time and
place. PSEUDOCOEL [noun] A fluid-filled body-cavity found in individuals
of some groups of animals that, ontogenetically, is derived from the blastocoel, and, unlike, a
true coelom, a pseudocoel is not lined with a peritoneum. Strangely enough, creatures that have
pseudodoels commonly are called pseudocoelomates. alphabetical index -----
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Z ROLL [noun] turning by angular motion about the longitudinal axis of an elongate object
when that axis is in horizontal orientation. (modified from anonymous, 1963, p. 746). [cf., PITCH, YAW]. alphabetical index -----
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Z SCOLECODONT [noun] Literally, "worm tooth". A number of the polychaete worms have jaws
located in the mouth region. These are common fossils in some rock units. They are chitinous in composition, are shiny, and are
black or dark brown in colour. Commonly they resemble tiny, multi-pointed teeth. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS [noun] The rocks that occur on Earth can be subdivided into three major groups:
Igneous Rocks, Metamorphic Rocks, and Sedimentary Rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
those deposited either from water or by the wind;
they generally are stratified; that is, they consist of strata. SEMELPAROUS [adj.] Used to describe organisms that
"focus all their reproductive resources on a single large event and then die" ; examples of semelparous organisms include squid. [See: Mason, et al., 2011, p. 1173.] [cf.: ITEROPAROUS]. STALACTITE [noun] A speleothem [so-called "cave-formation"] that hangs down from the
ceiling of a cave. [cf.: stalagmite]. [etymology: the Greek noun "stalaktos" = "dropping", "dripping", "trickling"
(Brown, 1956, p. 283)]. STALAGMITE [noun] A speleothem [so-called "cave-formation"] that sticks up from the
floor of a cave. [cf.: stalactite]. [etymology: the Greek noun "stalagma, stalagmatos" = "drop"
(Brown, 1956, p. 283)]. STATOCYST [noun] An organ of equilibrium occurring especially among invertebrate animals
and consisting usually of a fluid-filled vesicle in which are suspended calcareous particles [called statoliths].
(anonymous, 1963, p. 856). STATOLITH [noun] One of the calcareous particles in a statocyst
[q.v.]. STRATIGRAPHIC RANGE [noun] The fossils of a given kind or organism, of whatever taxonomic level
in the Linnaean Hierarchy, are distributed from their lowest occurrence in Earth's rock-record to their highest occurrence in
Earth's rock record; this is the stratigraphic range of that taxon. In keeping with the Principle of Superposition, this can be
translated into the actual time-span during which creatures of that taxon lived on Earth. STRATIGRAPHY [noun] The study of the layering in sedimentary rocks. Because there is a direct
relationship between the deposition of the layers and the passage of geologic time, there is an intimate relationship
between stratigraphy and geochronology. STRATUM [plural, STRATA] [noun] One of the layers that characterize sedimentary rocks. SUBSPECIES [noun] In the Linnaean hierarchy of taxonomy: The taxonomic level that is immediately below "species". SUCCESSION [noun] [See ECOLOGIC SUCCESSION.] SUPERPOSITION, THE PRINCIPLE OF [noun] A scientific principle, first promulgated by Nicholas Steno, in 1669,
that, in a undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest layer is on the bottom, and the youngest layer is at the
top. SYMBIOSIS [noun] SYNECOLOGY [noun] The ecology of communities. [etymology: "syn-" = "together"; + "ecology".] alphabetical index -----
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Z TAPHONOMY [noun] Everything that happens to an organism after death (and, sometimes, in the process of dying. too). TAXOBASIS [plural, TAXOBASES] [noun] One of the the characters, characteristics, criteria, or whatever, upon which is based
the assignment of a given organism to its proper taxon at a given level in the Linnaean Hierarchy. TIME-SCALE [noun] Geologists around the world have adopted a
"Geologic Time-Scale"
in order to refer to particular times in the Earth's past in a consistent, standardized way. TOPOGRAPHY [noun] The general configuration of a land surface or any part of the Earth's surface;
the natural or physical surface features of a region. [cf.: GEOMORPHOLOGY, PHYSIOGRAPHY]
[See Bates and Jackson, 1987, p. 691.]. [etymology: Greek "topos", meaning "place", and "graphein",
"to write".] alphabetical index -----
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Z VARIETY [noun] 1. In the Linnaean hierarchy of taxonomy: The term "variety" sometimes is used for the taxonomic rank of "sub-species". 2. In horticulture: The term "variety" commonly is used for a true-breeding strain of some species of plant. alphabetical index -----
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Z YAW [noun] turning by angular motion about a vertical axis.
(modified from anonymous, 1963, p. 1035). [cf.: PITCH, ROLL]. alphabetical index -----
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| TBC | = | citation incomplete or
otherwise suspect; it definitely needs to be checked against the original. |
| V | = | verified with the original publication |
| [ ] | = | note / annotation |
| ( ) | = | source of information |
Abercrombie, M., C. J. Hickman, and M. L. Johnson, 1962, A Dictionary of Biology: Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, Illinois, 254 p. ----- V.
Arnold, W. H. [compiler], 1965, A Glossary of a Thousand-and-one Terms Used in Conchology: Veliger 7 (Supplement): iii + 50 pp. 155 figures.
Barnes, Robert D., 1987, Invertebrate Zoology [fifth edition]: Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, ix + 893 p.
Bates, Robert L., and Julia A. Jackson, editors, 1987, Glossary of Geology [third edition]: American Geological Institute, Alexandria, Virginia, x + 788 p.
[This work, in its various editions, is the standard dictionary of geology in the English language.]
Boardman, Richard S., Alan H. Cheetham, Albert J. Rowell, editors, 1987, Fossil Invertebrates: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Palo Alto, California, xi + 713.
Brown, Roland Wilbur, 1956, Composition of Scientific Words. A manual of methods and a lexicon of materials for the practice of logotechnics [second edition]: Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., p. 1-882.
[This work is a treasure-trove with respect to the derivation of scientific terms and scientific names of organisms.]
Feldmann, Rodney M., and Merrianne Hackathorn, editors, 1996, Fossils of Ohio: Ohio Division of Geological Survey, Bulletin 70, xx + 577 p.
Jaeger, Edmund C., 1960, The Biologist's Handbook of Pronunciations: Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, xvi+ 317 p.
Kacirk, Jeffrey, 2006, Forgotten English: desk calendar for 2007.
Lincoln, R. J., and G. A. Boxshall, 1987, The Cambridge Illustrated Dictionary of Natural History: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 413 p. + 2-page unpaginated preface.
Losos, Jonathan B., Kenneth A. Mason, and Susan R. Singer, 2008, Biology [Eighth Edition]: McGraw-Hill, Boston, xxx + 1260 p. + appendices [cover of volume says: "Raven, Johnson, Losos, Mason, and Singer"!]. ----- V.
Mason, Kenneth A., Jonathan B. Losos, and Susan R. Singer, “2011”, Biology [“ninth edition”]: McGraw Hill, New York, xxvi + 1279 p. + some separately paginated appendicular matter. [ISBN of book: 978-0-07-353222-6].
Meyer, David L., and Richard Arnold Davis, 2009, A Sea Without Fish. Life in the Ordovician Sea of the Cincinnati Region: Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, xviii + 346 p. ----- V. [glossary, p. 279-294].
Oxford English Dictionary, 1971, The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Complete Text Reproduced Micrographically: Oxford University Press, New York, New York, volume I (p. i-xii + 1-2048), volume II (p. i-v + 2049-4116). ----- V.
[See also: Simpson, J. A., and E. S. C. Weiner, 1989;
plus, the OED is available on-line and in a CD version.]
Simpson, J. A., and E. S. C. Weiner, 1989, The Oxford English Dictionary [second edition]: Clarendon Press (Oxford University Press), Oxford, England, U.K., 20 volumes.
(anonymous), 1959, Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary: G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Massachusetts, xxii + 1174 p.
(anonymous), 1963, Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary: G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1221 p. ----- V.
(anonymous), 1974, Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary: G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1a-32a + 1536 p. ----- V.
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